Leadership Styles and its impact onThe Development Learning at Literature review

Leadership Styles and its impact onThe Development Learning at Universities - Literature review Example The paper tells that since time immemorial, humans have constantly been engaging in social activities that out of necessity resulted in some individuals becoming leaders while others took the role of following the roles of the leaders. In as much as some theorist may suggest that every person is a leader of his or her own, but in this case, we would like to speak of a leader one who is at the top of any organizational pyramid after appointment, promotion, attrition or the like. In recent times, as the population continues to expand and there got an increase in interdependence in all human areas, leadership started taking keen toll on management. As population increases, the need of having appropriate leaders to lead groups of people has emanated. In accordance to Northhouse, leadership becomes defined as a process where a person influences a certain group of people to achieve a given common goal. Leadership remains to be a term that evolved through time and became lately more popular as interests in it continued. Leadership began mostly with the productivity law that states that the most productive individuals became awarded something or an honor. It then evolved to become a management law when people became supposed to manage other individuals in order to improve on productivity leading to it becoming leadership law. In any learning institution for instance, there are many different leaders that got different styles plus different levels of popularity. Leadership styles Leadership style in simple terms can be described as how an individual plays a given role. In addition, it could imply how a given individual reacts, decides, interacts and treats other people. Kurt Lewin (1939, p.78) led some researchers in identify various different styles of leadership. From his research and many more on leadership styles, there are over 10 leadership styles that became identified in influencing developmental learning in universities (Goleman 2004, p.18). Examples of basic l eadership styles commonly employed in university settings by the leaders include autocratic, bureaucratic, Laissez faire and democratic leadership. Other leadership styles include transformational leadership, transactional, creative, corrective, change, intelligence, multicultural, pedagogical, bridging, servant and purposeful leadership (Dereli 2010, p.6; Glanz 2002, p.3; Kippenberger 2002, p.10). History The interest and documentation of academic leadership more so began in the middle part of the 20th century. It started with seminal works focused specifically on the notion that most successful leaders were in possession of certain intellectual and physical attributes that made them become successful in leading others. The trait theory, emanated as a product of leadership positions bestowed by a higher power historically through birthright therefore, producing the belief that most leaders get born rather than made. One of the first published work in this field belonged to Stogdill . Stogdill and Shartle (1948, p.3) approached this work with intentions of identifying key traits perceived as common attributes associated with successful leaders. After Stogdill and Shartle, many more studies became conducted to add up to their list of leadership traits (Mann 1959, p.34; Locke & Kirkpatrick 1991, p.56; Alliger, Lord 1986, p.67). A lot of differences and commonalities in the leadership traits identified by some of these researchers continued to show prevalence among various academic institutions. After the Stogdill and Shartle, additional efforts became placed on coming up with things that make an individual possess strong leadership skills. This led to the birth of the skills approach in ascertain some leadership qualities (Lewis 1993, p.18). The skills approach disagrees with the trait approach in a number of ways. In as much as both the skills approa

THE ROLE OF RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION STRATEGY IN SUPPORTING EMPLOYEE Essay - 4

THE ROLE OF RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION STRATEGY IN SUPPORTING EMPLOYEE RETENTION WITHIN A COMPLEX INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MARKET - Essay Example The paradox in this situation is that these foreign assignments are highly compensated with hefty perks. Despite some meticulous recruitment procedures, employees still cut short the international tour of duty hence putting to question the nature of the recruitment procedures that are unable to siphon out the restless candidates. Heneman and Judge (2003) describe recruitment as the, â€Å"the process of acquiring, deploying, and retaining a workforce of sufficient quantity and quality to create positive impacts on the organization’s effectiveness† (p. 4). In view of the precarious nature of the international recruitment assignments, most firms out to hire new employees have resorted to demanding a more meticulous selection procedure to eliminate those candidates deemed incapable of surviving the strain and demand of the foreign locations. In this endeavour, the major categories used to garner the correct candidate include the individual’s flexibility; this necessitate the potential employee indicate willingness to endure the expected environmental and social changes in the locale assigned to (Workman, 2008). This criterion has been found to the principal factor other than the usual professional acumen that employers expect from the potential candidates. A hardy employee must demonstrate his willingness to adapt to adverse climatic changes, foreign lingua franca, religious beliefs, changes in social activities, or conflicting nutritional practices. Firms operating in the Middle East, Africa, or the North Sea usually require pot ential employees to express their capability to deal with the anticipated hash conditions required to work in the regions. These include withstanding extremely cruel weather, religious intolerance, no social activities among other adverse conditions which are not suited for the faint-hearted. Employers therefore decisively

Effect of Drug and Alcohol interventions

Effect of Drug and Alcohol interventions This study seeks to look at whether drug and alcohol interventions are of benefit to that of the service user, especially from an adult perspective. It will seek to address the help that is out there to help individuals who might recognise the need to be rid of their addiction and to be restored back to their normal routine life, before the addiction gets a hold of them any further. Qualitative researches tend to concentrate on specific issues that are health related, and that such matters are fundamental to the temperament of our thoughts and feelings. Issues that a qualitative approach might find much easier to address, such is not the case when dealing with quantitative data. Therefore it is not a matter of asking whether or not qualitative research is better than quantitative approach, but rather what is the best approach to gather information for a specific research question such as their lived experience which is what this research is based upon. Because I aim to investigate th e benefits of interventions treatment provided by the healthcare and social care sectors therefore the best approach would be to use a qualitative approach. A qualitative approach will be used; this is to best understand the experience that they have faced, and the method of interviews will be used to help gather concrete data. When an individual becomes addicted, the user no longer consumes just for the fun of it or to get high. But in actual fact, the person with the addiction now relies on the alcohol or the drugs in order to perform on a day by day basis. One might say in some circumstances, the addicted persons daily life will revolve around fulfilling their need from the substance on which they are now hooked. This study aims to help those who are not aware of services provided out there, to gain knowledge and know that there are different sectors as well as inter-professionals whether it be healthcare or social care intends to help them fight their fears. By talking about the ir experiences and feelings they are now faced with and the required actions they now should take in order to tackle their addiction, will best help one to understand what best intervention treatment is benefit able for each individual as others might be more severe and likewise not so severe. Literature Review Intervention is the course of action for which an individual take advantage of when all other options has been exploited in an attempt to help a person conquer a drug or alcohol problem. (Drug alcohol addiction-recovery). It is an intentional method used by which change is introduced into an individuals thoughts, that of their feelings and behaviour. The process of drug intervention normally seeks reinforcement from a wide variety of service providers. In addition to specialist addiction services, this may include general practitioners, pharmacists, hospital staff, social workers, and those working in housing, education and employment services, who sees it crucial to approach individuals whom they recognise are self-destructing themselves. The National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (NTA) is a special health authority within the NHS, established by Government in 2001, to improve the availability, capacity and effectiveness of treatment for drug misuse in England (NTA, 2007). T he NTA has reasoned that there is absolute need for combined and harmonised input from a diverse range of professional groups. However in such case it should be that the local regions offer substance misuse individuals the choice of generic and specialist interventions (NTA,2006). Illicit drug users have multiple and complex needs, including high levels of morbidity and mortality, domestic and family problems, homelessness, physical and sexual abuse, and unemployment (Neale 2002). However in order to get help the person struggling with the addiction must first of all recognised the need for help. Habitually, an individual with substance misuse issues finds it hard to come to terms in accepting the fact that they do have a problem, by acknowledging this it is as if the world around them is at fault or that ones causing a commotion over nothing. Individuals who are uncompromising in regards to their addiction do not recognise the gravity of their problem. What matters to them is attaining the drug, despite the consequences. Neither health nor Legal implications are taken into considerations. The International Treatment Effectiveness Project (ITEP) is branch of the National Treatment Agencys Treatment Effectiveness strategy, which acknowledges matters for improving the excellence of treatment interventions. ITEP employs intervention to support care development which is referred to as mapping in the structure of a changing pattern guide. Mapping is a visual communication tool for clarifying shared information between client and key worker. It helps clients to look at the causes and effects of their thinking and also assists in problem solving. (NTA, 2007). Alcohol Drug Services has valued its involvement with ITEP. The project has delivered immediate and tangible, benefits for clients though mapping interventions that are clear, straightforward and meaningful. Hogan. T. 2007. (Alcohol and Drug services) This is used by qualified key workers along with their services users; this is in the format of maps which consist of five different stages and it shows the phase by which a client go through in order to get to the point where they then acknowledge that they may have a serious drug problem. Besides the mapping, the treatment manual included a concise intervention designed to change clients thinking patterns. This helps them to explore self and recognise the stage in which they are at, it highlights their strengths, things that matters to them most in life for example decision making, social relationships, careers and there morals and beliefs and how best they can improve their life It was envisage that services instigating this treatment manual would see a improved and encouraging change in service users self assessments of their treatment understanding over a period of time, in comparison to that of clients in services who had somewhat or no mapping. Research shows that the alcohol and drug services has valued the involvement with ITEP, it claimed that the project has provided direct and substantial assistance to that of the service users. Another programme that works alongside National Treatment Agency is that of the Drug interventions programme. This plays an important role in dealing with drugs and the decline of crime. Instigated in the year 2003, it was aimed at adult substance misuse criminals who specifically use Class A drugs, like for example heroin and cocaine and this is was aimed at helping them to get out of crime and to get on treatment and other support that is available to them. (DIP, 2003). It is stated in the Drug Intervention Operational Hand Book that above  £900m overall has shown interest in DIP since the programme has been established and readily available is constant financial support to guarantee that Drug Intervention Programme progression grows to be the reputable way of working with drug misusing offenders across England and Wales. (DIP, 2003). Majority of these offenders who makes use of the Drug Intervention Programmes are amongst the most difficult to reach and most challenging drug mis users, and are offenders who have not formerly had access to treatment in any significant way before. The advantage of DIP is that it concentrates on the requirements of the offenders by sighting innovative ways of inter-professional working, whilst linking pre-existing ones, across the criminal justice system, healthcare and drugs treatment services along with a variety of other assistance and rehabilitative services. It is stated that the Drug Intervention Programme and the Prolific other Priority Programme (PPO)are similar in their joint intention to diminish drug associated wrong doing by switching Prolific and other Priority Programmes into treatment, rehabilitation and other support services. The Improving Tier 4 provision quality service is a fundamental part of the National Treatment Agencys (NTA) Treatment Effectiveness strategy. This associates the responsibility that the entire stakeholder sectors can participate in cooperation with finding solutions and improvements. The provision and quality programme consists of two different but related categories of service provision as defined by Models of Care: they are inpatient treatment (IP) and residential rehabilitation (RR). Aftercare (AC) is a closely related category of service provision. (NTA, 2008) The credentials investigate the types of provision that are being referred to at any time appointed by the IP, RR and AC. The NTA Improving quality Tier 4 is referred to when the instruction may exercise all interventions treatments. It suggests that all indications to Tier 4 provisions ought to have incorporated care approach amidst Tier 3 or Tier 2 provision and with aftercare. (NTA, 2008). The Tier 4 service provision offers supportive responses to drug misusers whose consume has been ongoing, intake is quiet a substantial amount, individuals with complicated needs, and this can allow the drug users to move forward in the direction of long-term self-restraint when and where convenient. Institutionalise services can also admit and support disordered clients. However some Tier 4 service arrangement may perhaps also have a significant function to participate in whilst entertaining individuals aside from continual substance misusing livelihood by intervening early. In accordance with this, the NTA has already produced guidance on commissioning Tier 4 service provision, specifically the Models of Residential Rehabilitation for Drug and Alcohol Misusers (NTA, 2006d) and Commissioning Tier 4 Drug Treatment. (NTA, 2006b). Inpatient treatment and residential rehabilitation are evidence-based interventions and have been shown to be effective in improving client outcomes across the range of domains. The NTAs forthcoming review of the evidence base for drug treatment outlines the effectiveness of residential rehabilitation and detoxification. NTORS (2000) demonstrates the effectiveness of residential rehabilitation treatment in achieving positive outcomes in reducing both drug use and crime for clients, many of whom had more severe problems than those in community services. Specialist in-patient interventions have traditionally been focused at and work well with clients who have complex drug, alcohol and other health needs, those in crisis, those requiring medication stabilisation e.g. on injectable or high dose opioids, or for effective detoxification. Recent evidence also indicates that they may be effective in providing detoxification for younger drug misusers who wish to be drug free. Evidence also indicates that inpatient detoxification is cost effective in achieving drug-free status. Drug-specific aftercare is normally required to maintain abstinence, together with appropriate housing and other support. In-patient detoxification followed by residential rehabilitation is the most effective way for drug users to become drug free, if they are motivated to be drug free and this is the agreed objective3. Commissioners should develop local drug treatment system plans annually in line with Models of Care, which outlines the now well established four-tiered model of drug and alcohol treatment interventions for adults. Commissioners should also commission in line with the Treatment Effectiveness Strategy, particularly the emphasis on whole treatment journeys and commission full pathways of care, including aftercare and other support to enable clients to maintain positive outcomes achieved in treatment. One of the key principles which underpins the commissioning of the four-tiers is that drug and alcohol treatment services should be planned strategically. This means that the impact of the commissioning of any one intervention could be viewed in the strategic context of the drug and alcohol treatment system for a locality or region. These key principles are a major feature of the treatment planning process5 led by the NTA, which forms the basis of effective strategic planning and commissioning. This is expected to be an integral part of local treatment planning and should be used by partnerships and commissioners to address local population needs in line with the national priorities and on the basis of evidence of what works. Aim To investigate the drug and alcohol interventions in health and social care benefits on service users? Research Question How do drug and alcohol interventions in health and social care benefit service users? Methodology Qualitative data Qualitative data refers to expression or images, method used for interpretation. Qualitative data does not survive out there waiting to be exposed, but are shaped by the way they are interpreted and used by the researcher. The character of qualitative data is seen to be wholesome and intact by the act of research itself. Qualitative approach investigates the importance of in depth understanding for a research topic as experienced by the participants of the research. The qualitative approach has been used to study extremely complex experience which can be understood without being expressed in words (Bradbury Lichtenstein, 2000), others have suggested studies that justify answers like what or how type questions would be careful in using qualitative approach (Lee et al.,1999). Qualitative research usually does not seek to calculate or evaluate objects under examination using numbers, as this is an approach which deals within the quantitative domain. The profundity of qualitative data develops on or after the conversation between the researcher and the participant; the insights achieved throughout this course of action can only be achieved given the interaction between the two. Research Strategy: The research strategy chosen is the plan of answering the research questions (Saunders et al, 2000). It is a choice on the methodology to be used and how it is to be used (Silverman, 2005). The research strategy seeks to classify the alternative strategies of inquiry according to quantitative, qualitative and mixed method approaches (Creswell, 1998). From this research strategy a phenomenology approach is used. A phenomenology sample comes from the word philosophy and it provides a framework for a method of research. It is based within the Humanistic research theory and follows a qualitative approach Denscombe, 2003. The aim of phenomenological sampling is to investigate fully and describe ones lived experience. It stresses that only those that have experienced phenomena can communicate them to the outside world . (Todres et al, 2004). The phenomenological research strategy as a result answers questions of significance in accepting an experience from those who have experienced it. The phenomenological term lived experience is identical with this research approach. Phenomenology consequently aims to develop insights from the perspectives of those involved by them detailing their lived experience of a particular time in their lives (Clark, 2000).this sampling is about searching for meanings and essences of the experience. It gathers descriptions of experiences all the way through hearing the first-person accounts during informal one-to one interviews. These are then transcribed and analyzed for themes and meanings (Moustakas, 1994) allowing the experience to be understood. Husserls phenomenological enquiry originally came from the certainty that untried methodical study may perhaps not be the best to use to revise human phenomena and had become so detached from the fabric of the human experience, that it was in fact hindering our understanding of ourselves (Crotty, 1996). He then felt driven to start up a thorough discipline that found truth in the lived experience (LoBiondo-Wood and Haber, 2002). Quantitative v Qualitative: Quantitative data lend themselves to various forms of statistical techniques based on the principles of mathematics and probability. In contrast, qualitative research is suited to investigating and seeking a deeper understanding of a social setting or an activity as viewed from the perspective of participants (Bloomberg and Volpe, 2008). Qualitative research is concerned with the nature, explanation and understanding of phenomena. Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data are not measured in terms of frequency or quantity but rather are examined for in-depth meanings and processes (Labuschagne, 2003). Silverman (2006:42) warns that quantitative research can amount to a quick fix approach involving little or no contact with people or field and has been deemed inappropriate for understanding complex social phenomena. Approach: Typical methods used in qualitative research are structured interviews, surveys, structured observations and potentially a focus group. This is where the researcher places his or herself in the midst of the participant for a while, learns from that persons only when in the presence. Silverman (2006) recommends a qualitative philosophy to be appropriate when the researcher seeks to investigate an incompletely documented phenomena and aiming to provide a better means understanding of social phenomenon where processes are involved. Even without wanting to shift entirely away from a purely quantitative view of health, many people now appreciate that a basic understanding of qualitative research can have a positive effect on our thinking and practice. It offers new ways of understanding the complexity of health care, new tools for collecting and analysing data, and new vocabulary to make arguments about the quality of the care we offer. As a consequence of our enhanced learning, we come t o realize that qualitative research is neither a sham science nor a poor substitute for experimentation. Interviews: Interviews will be my method by which to gather data for this research. They are generally used in assembling data in qualitative research. They are typically used as a research strategy to gather information about participants experiences, views and beliefs concerning a specific research question or phenomenon of interest (Lambert and Loiselle, 2007). Important types of interviews are identified by Babbie (2007) they are known as standardized interview, the semi-standardized interview and the unstandardised interview. The distinctions regarding each type are predominantly concerned as to how the interview is structured. Interview process: Individuals will be chosen from a population 200 service users who attend on a weekly basis the local drug drop in centre for counselling, rehab or to be signed posted to other agencies who might be of help. Such individuals might be undergoing drug or alcohol interventions treatment to help them steer away from their addiction. Sample target will be aimed towards adults who may be institutionalised or living at home, but are faced with the challenges of been an addict and are trying to seek help. The size of participants will be 10 and have residency within the Northamptonshire area. Interviews notifications were sent in advance, as to prepare participant. A consent form prior to interviewers visit was sent (see Appendix A), and participants were provided with an outline of the types of questions (see Appendix B) that might be asked at the interview. This was to enable that they had adequate time to prepare and reflect what it is they would like to share and also to ensure interview er collected the right information from interview. In a qualitative interview it is important that the questions capture the interviewees perceptions and not those of the researcher (Perry, 1998). This is mostly to verify that the responses given were not probed by the interviewer. The interview was carried out the local drug and alcohol drop in center in a room away from other clients. This was to enable full concentration and for them to be more open, as they might feel embarrassed about the issue at hand. The researcher asked questions at the interview scheduled which can be found in (Appendix B).During the interview a soft approach was taken to give the participant a chance to settle down and relax. For such reason an easy question was asked to start off with, something which the interviewee might have had time to formulate views on already. The interviews took twenty five minutes per participant and notes were recorded during the interview. A convenience sample best represents the direction of this research as it generally assumes a consistent population, and that one person is pretty much like another. Data Analysis The presumption, by which qualitative data produce, ought to be honest. It is essential that there are evidence and reasonable argument to prove. The procedure carried out must be trustworthy and able to convince one that that the results obtained was not false. This is because the information that was gathered from the interviews ought to have value in order for inter-professional bodies to make use of it. Qualitative research must meet our expectations for rigorously conducted research and reliable information, but must be true to its underlying philosophies and methodologies. (2009). International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation. The data will going to analysed key themes from the ten respondents, and it is hope that this will help answer the research question. Thus the data gathered from the interviews shows concrete evidence in relation to that of the information shown in the literature review. Though not a sufficient amount of data from the literature review to speak on behalf of the service users as to how they felt whilst going through the different treatments, the interviews really helped in shedding some light as to what they thought. When asked the question how they recognised they needed help, some raised the issue that they recognise that their family lives were a mess, were not able to hold down employment and other issues. Responses received from the interviews where somewhat shocking, as some found they were still struggling to be rid of their addiction whilst others were trying to get back to norm within society. The individuals who shared that they were still finding it a bit difficult was due to the fact that the environment which they still remained in, did not help them to refrain but rather tempted them more, for some this was the challenges they faced. Others recognised that the intervention treatment centres out there were readily available to help them which one can say is a good sign for them. Ethical Consideration Qualitative research confronts ethical issues and dispute exclusively to the study of human beings. Standard knowledge in areas such as physics, chemistry and biology permits the researcher to presume a point of view separate from the purpose of study occurrence in questioning. Confidentiality is an important ethical concern for most when considering a rehab program or other drug interventions treatment. Each individual in recuperation may have experiences they may not feel comfortable sharing with everyone. It is therefore important for not just doctors, but for other inter-professional members to respect the confidentiality of each person that they are treating. Giving permission for the individual to come to terms with their experience which is part of the rehab procedure, and it is not somewhat to be hastened or taken for granted. Permitting the individual who might be feeling emotional the opportunity to heal their wounds from the drug and alcohol abuse is vital for recovery. This is why it is imperative that a client enquire what the confidentiality policies are before registering unto a treatment program. Likewise one can pose a risk of harm to that of the client and this is not by being aware of the restraint imposed by the institutions order. The p rofessional team has to ensure that their influence over the clients is not predominant and they have sufficient knowledge in regards to the plan of their treatment. Though the individual might not have the capacity to make choices, conduct them self in terms of their personal values and beliefs, however if all has failed that guardian has to attempt to reach a decision as best as the individual would do if they were able. The ethical principle of beneficence, the desired to do what is considered best for the clients and promoting their growth and wellbeing, is essential to the practise of rehabilitation counselling, ( Howie et al, 1992). Conclusion The confrontation of providing best care for every service user at the towards the end of their treatment are considerable. Success is vital, and works best when all services and practioners understand each others roles and find means of working together. It is anticipated that the information received from the research will be used to improve inter- professional working and improve services. In-patient and residential rehabilitation drug and alcohol services should be commissioned as part of Integrated Care Pathways..These Integrated Care Pathways should be commissioned with clear routes into inpatient services, which seamlessly lead to residential rehabilitation (if required) followed by a community-based substance misuse support package,. Housing, education and employment support is important for individuals who have completed treatment and returned to the community if they are to sustain the gains made from Tier 4 treatment. Commissioners of drug treatment systems, should have in place the appropriate local links to work in close liaison with other local commissioners in the development of health, social care and housing strategies to ensure those leaving in-patient and residential rehabilitation services have access to the wide range of services necessary to provide comprehensive and effective packages of care. A key issue is the availability of housing support services and move-on accommodation for drug and alcohol users leaving in-patient and residential rehabilitation services. The data gathered showed that Appendix A August 2010 To whom this may Concern, My name is a researcher from the University of Northampton. I got hold of your information from the organisation which you attend daily drop in sessions, so therefore I decided to contact you. My research requested access from you in order to conduct it, as I understand that you fit my criteria for my area of study. As part of my research, I am undertaking an examination to see whether the interventions provided by the healthcare and social care services are of great benefit to you, and does it help you steer away from your addiction. The objective of my study is to best understand what it is like for you to deal with the addiction once it has gone so far. In order to undertake this research, I would be really grateful if you could give consent for me to carry out my research in the form of short interviews which will last up to 45 minutes with just myself been the researcher in your own domain. Notes will be taken at the interview and everything said will remain confidential between us. I look forward to your reply and for us to discuss the matter at hand further. Yours sincerely (NAME) Appendix B Interview schedule How did you recognise you needed help to stop taking drugs or drinking alcohol excessively? What support did you get from the inter-professional workers? Explain the challenges you faced in your decision to stop taking the drugs or alcohol? What benefits do you think youve gained from the interventions been introduced to you? What has been your experience from using the interventions services? Do you think there are enough services around to help you, if and when you do decide to refrain drugs or alcohol?

Effective Meetings - Essential to Any Organization Essay -- Business M

While effective meetings are essential to any organization and to getting work done, most of the meetings I attend leave me looking for a decision. These meetings also leave me tired and somewhat disillusioned on the vision of the company. I think a good meeting is not dissimilar to a football teams huddle. It should bring people together, facilitate decision making, assist people in taking responsibility, energize the participants, and contribute to building team effort within the organization. From attending and running more than my share of meetings I feel successful meetings are ones where attention is paid to three areas; content, design and process. Selection of content is crucial. At a meeting I recently attended we discussed issue...

Cognitive Psychology Essay

Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people absorb, process and store information. It is considered as a discipline in dealing with other fields like science, philosophy and language. Perception, thinking, attention, memory, decision Making and Problem Solving ability are some factors that determine this field of psychology. This field serves as an aid in making educational curriculum and other software designs needed for learning. Studying this field focuses on human information processing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internal mental state is the focus of cognitive psychology. People who focuses on this field merely studies how to understand, trace and find cure to serious problems relating to mental health. There are 7 themes associated with Cognitive Psychology: Attention, Automatic and conscious processing, Data driven and conceptually driven processing, Knowledge representation, Metacognition, Unconscious processing and Levels of analysis in cognitive science (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One discipline involved in this field is that cognitive psychology is said to be different from neuroscience because it discusses information processing at a software level. The primary method used is through experimentation on human subjects. Wilhelm Wundt is one remarkable cognitive psychologist who established his first laboratory in 1879. His study focuses on conscious experience (Pritchard, 2000). â€Å"Wundt did experiments involving introspection. Introspection is self-examination of the mind, or conscious experience. Wundt asked subjects to introspect about the feelings and sensations they had in response to a physical stimulus† (Pritchard, 2000). His perseverance on studying cognitive psychology made him consider this subject as a formal academic discipline.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through further studies and continuous search for developing this field, Wundt was able to train another psychologist like him in the person of Edward Titchener. â€Å"Titchener tried to determine the contents of the mind further (Pritchard, 2000). Structuralism was discovered by him where he was able to determine the elements of thought and how those elements were   combined.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another fundamental of cognitive psychology is Herman Ebbinghaus’ discovery during the late 19th century. â€Å"Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to study memory in a quantifiable manner. Nonsense syllables are CVCs, consonant- vowel-consonant trigrams. Ebbinghaus chose those as his subject matter, because he wanted to study memory in a pure form. Hence, he did not want to use items that already had some meaning attached to them. Ebbinghaus demonstrated effects of interference, practice time and forgetting† (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another proponent is Edward Tolman who was famous because of his work that centered around animals who demonstrates behaviors based on expectations and internal factors. The importance of his study on cognitive psychology is about memorization. He made experiment on rats by putting them in a maze after they were trained. The rats reached the goal point without going to the learned place. This supported the notion that they had created a cognitive map.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Behavior on the other hand is relevant to cognitive psychology because this is where the processed information appears. The effect of consciousness is determined by the outcome through a person’s behavior. â€Å"Wundt and Titchener were aware of the subjectivity of consciousness, but they still believed that consciousness could be studied†(Pritchard, 2000). Behavior is said to be objective and not subjective. The universal laws of behavior can be determined through psychology because all living things are subject to experimentation of why they come up with such results.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cognitive psychology and behaviorism goes hand in hand because there are certain aspects that cannot be determined by one field alone. Behaviorism is seen through actions while cognitive deals with information processing. â€Å"Because of behaviorism’s emphasis on the observable there were some things that they just didn’t talk about. Memory, language, and other mental activities would not be discussed by behaviorists. At least they wouldn’t be discussed as we would discuss them, with reference to mental events and thoughts that are unobservable by other people. They tried to explain these phenomenon by constructing theories involving biological drives and habits† (Pritchard, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although there are some arguments relating to behavior and cognitive psychology, since there are claims that Mental processes were considered habits that   were not connected to the brain, still Cognitive psychology diminishes the confusions as to why human come up with that action. There are interacting determinants between behavior and cognitive psychology. Through these field people learn that as a discipline, cognitive psychology is developed to bridge the gap between behaviorism and cognitive social psychology. Tracing the development of cognitive psychology, it developed mainly from Behavioral psychology because through observations and critical thinking, cognitive psychologist learn to investigate more about information processing. References Pritchard, Evan (2000) Attention and Memory Chapter 1 How Cognitive Psychology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developed. An article about Cognitive Psychology from the winnipeg website.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Retrieved March 15, 2008 from: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~epritch1/amdvlop.htm

Frederick Douglass: His Slavery Years Essay

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the United States was a young nation divided by numerous philosophical and political differences. Arguably, slavery was the most divisive issue at the time. There were individuals who spoke out against slavery; perhaps the most eloquent anti-slavery voice belonged to Frederick Douglass. Douglass was an American abolitionist who altered American views concerning slavery through his writings and actions. He stood in stark contrast to pro slavery advocates’ claim that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to act as free citizens. Douglass was born into slavery as Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, in February, 1818. The exact date of his birth is unknown. Douglass chose to celebrate February 14th as his birthday. In his autobiography, The Narrative of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass (2002) stated, â€Å"I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen authentic record containing it†(SparkNotes Editors, 2002). Douglass’s birthplace was Holmes Hill Farm, located on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. Frederick’s mother, Harriet Bailey, was a slave who worked the cornfields around Holmes Hill. Little is known of Frederick’s father other than he was a white man. There was speculation that Douglass’s father was his master as slave owners often impregnated their female slaves. Common among slaves was being forced to work long hours; Harriet was no exception. The long hours deprived Harriet from forging a motherly bond with her son. Douglass (2002) recalled the only time he spent with his mother was when she would walk 12 miles after dark to lie next to him at night (SparkNotes Editors, 2002). At a young age, Douglass was separated from his mother and placed in the care of his maternal grandmother, Betsey Bailey. Several years later, when told that his mother had died, Douglass barely reacted to the news. Living with his grandmother shielded Douglass from the harsh realities of slavery. Betsey’s job was to simply look after the young children of the slaves. When Frederick was seven or eight years old, he would begin to the face the bleak life of a slave. Douglass’s grandmother inexplicably took him on a long, faraway journey. The two approached a large, graceful home, called the Lloyd Plantation. Several children were playing in front of the home. According to Sandra Thomas, author of Frederick Douglass–Abolitionist/Editor, A Biography of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Betsey Bailey pointed to three of the children and introduced them as his siblings, Perry, Sara, and Eliza (Sandra Thomas, n.d). Frederick reluctantly joined his brother and sisters for a bonding session. After a while, Frederick realized his grandmother had left the plantation without him. Life on the Lloyd Plantation was vastly different from what Frederick was accustomed to. The plantation encompassed 20 farms and grew tobacco, corn, and wheat. Douglass’s master was named Captain Aaron Anthony, who was also the plantation’s superintendent. Captain Anthony supervised all of the plantation’s overseers, and was responsible for three to four hundred slaves owned by the Lloyd family. All slaves were required report to Lloyd’s central plantation for their monthly allowances of pork or fish and cornmeal. All of Lloyd’s slaves referred to the central plantation as â€Å"The Great House Farm,† because it resembled a small village (SparkNotes, 2002). The slaves also received one set of linen clothing, which was expected to last for one year. Frederick did not work in the field as a young boy because children were not strong enough. Instead, he was assigned to be the companion of Daniel Lloyd, the plantation owner’s grandson. Even though Daniel quickly became quite fond of Douglass, this friendship did not produce any favoritism towards Frederick. Like the other slave children, Douglass was given only a long, linen shirt to wear. The cold winters damaged Douglass’s feet so badly that he could insert a pen into the cracks of his flesh (SparkNotes, 2002). The children were fed cornmeal mush and forced to eat it out of a trough, similar to how pigs were fed. Perhaps the only preferential treatment Douglass received came from Lucretia Auld, Captain Anthony’s daughter, recently married to a ship’s captain. Lucretia gave Douglass menial tasks to perform, such as running errands. In 1826, Lucretia told Douglass he would be sent to Baltimore to live with her brother-in-law, Hugh Auld, manager of a ship building company. Additionally, if Frederick cleaned himself up really well, Lucretia promised to give him a pair of pants to wear for his trip. In his autobiography, The Narrative of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass (2002) states he spent the majority of the three days leading up to his trip at a creek, â€Å"washing off the plantation scruff†(BookRags, p 75). Clean and stylish in his pants, Douglass left the Lloyd Plantation for what he hoped would be the last time. Of leaving Colonel Lloyd’s plantation, Douglass (2002) felt no sorrow or loss because his mother was dead, he seldom saw his grandmother, and his relationship with his brother and two sisters was limited (BookRags, p 75). Frederick arrived in Baltimore and was greeted by the Hugh and Sophia Auld, and their little son, Thomas. The happy smile on Sophia’s face represented a first for Douglass; kindness on the face of a white master. Douglass (2002) believed his move to Baltimore signified the first major step toward freedom. He credited his selection among so many other children as an act of divine intervention, saying: From my earliest recollection, I date the entertainment of a deep conviction that slavery would not always be able to hold me within its foul embrace; and in the darkest hours of my career in slavery, this living word of faith and spirit of hope departed not from me, but remained like ministering angels to cheer me through the gloom. This good sprit was from God, and to him I offer thanksgiving and praise. (Book Rags, p. 75) Frederick’s duties at the Auld home were to run errands and care for the Auld’s infant son, Tommy. There was a noticeable difference between slavery in Baltimore and slavery in the country. In Baltimore, slave owners shared a common sense of decency towards their slaves. In general, slaves were rarely beaten and were given adequate amounts of food to eat. Sophia Auld was unlike any white woman Douglass had ever encountered; she treated him like a human being. Sophia was a religious woman and would often read aloud from the Bible to Frederick and Tommy. Douglass gathered up enough courage and asked Sophia to teach him how to read. Sophia agreed and had soon taught Frederick the alphabet and a few simple words. Sophia had never been a slave owner, and had not developed the mindset that blacks were sub-human. Sophia was thrilled with Fredericks’s progress and excitedly informed her husband. Hugh Auld was furious at his wife’s willingness to bond with a slave as well as her desire to educate one. Auld informed his wife that it was unlawful to teach a slave. Furthermore, if a slave knew how to read and write it would make him unfit to be a slave. A slave owner’s worst fear was an educated slave. An educated slave would no longer obey the master and may even begin to question life as a slave. An educated slave may even escape to freedom alone or with a band of slaves. Auld ordered his wife to stop the lessons immediately. Over time, the constant prodding from Sophie’s husband and the menacing effects of slavery soon changed her attitude towards Frederick. Douglass (2002) noted the change of feelings in his autobiography, saying: But, alas! this kind heart had but a short time to remain such. The fatal poison of irresponsible power was already in her hands, and soon commenced its infernal work. That cheerful eye under the influence of slavery soon became red with rage; that voice made of sweet accord, changed to one of harsh discord; andangelic face gave place to that of a demon. (Book Rags, p. 77-78) Frederick surmised from Auld’s outburst that reading and writing were his pathways to freedom. Frederick made obtaining this knowledge a personal challenge. Douglass used what he learned from Sophia and increased his knowledge of the alphabet on his own. He accomplished his task through diligence and the use of clever tactics. Since Sophia had stopped teaching Frederick to read, she became extremely vigilant in preventing him from learning, becoming stricter than her husband. Whenever she caught Frederick reading, Sophia would scream at him to stop and threaten to beat him if she caught him reading again. In order to counter Sophia’s watchful eye, Douglass made friends with as many white children as he could while he ran errands. The children became Frederick’s teachers; each child offered a different skill set to further Frederick’s knowledge. Whenever Douglass had time between his errands, he would join his friends for a quick lesson. Frederick also exchanged bread for instruction, particularly from the poorer white kids who had less to eat than he did. Frederick (2002) recounts talking to some of them about freedom and even gained sympathy from some for his plight (BookRags p. 79).   When Douglass was around 12 or 13, he obtained a copy of a book entitled, The Columbian Orator, a collection of speeches and essays dealing with liberty, democracy, and courage. The book opened up for Douglass a vast array of ideas on freedom, liberty and truth. One particular passage in the book intrigued Frederick the most. A master and his recaptured slave exchanged dialogue regarding why the slave had run away. The master failed to understand why the slave had attempted to escape for a second time, outlining the many acts of kindness given to the slave. The slave defended his actions and the conversation soon turned into an argument for or against slavery. The slave expertly countered every point the master made for why slavery should be allowed. Having realized defeat, the master granted the slave freedom, even wished him prosperity in his new life. The book also contained a speech arguing for the freedom of Irish Catholics and for human rights in general. Douglass began to fully articulate the case against slavery, but it also brought forth the painful realization of his own life as a slave. The warnings of Hugh Auld had come true, Frederick’s new found knowledge began to torment his soul. In his autobiography, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, (2007), Douglass stated, â€Å"the very discontent so graphically predicted by Master Hugh had already come upon me. I was no longer the light-hearted gleesome boy, full of mirth and play, as when I landed in Baltimore†(Library of Liberty, p.90). During this time, Douglass began to listen to anyone who discussed slavery. At some point in the discussions, Douglass heard the word abolitionist for the first time. In a city newspaper account of a Northern abolitionist petition, Frederick learned that word meant anti-slavery (SparkNotes, 2002). Armed with this new found knowledge, Frederick attempted to learn all he could about abolitionists. Douglass (2007) declared, â€Å"I therefore set about finding out, if possible, who and what the abolitionists were and why they were so obnoxious to the slaveholders†(Library of Liberty, p 90). Soon thereafter, Douglass aided two Irish sailors, without being asked, unload a boat at the wharf. When the task was completed, one of the sailors asked Douglass if he was a slave. Frederick (2007), replied, â€Å"I am a slave for life† (Library of Liberty, p.93). The Irishman shrugged and appeared to be deeply affected by Frederick’s response. Both Irishmen implored Douglass to run away to the north where he could be free. Douglass pretended to be uninterested, because he feared the men might be bounty hunters who enticed slaves to escape, then recaptured them to collect the reward money. However, the thought of running away stayed on his mind, with a vow to do so when the time was right. Before he could run away, Frederick believed that he should learn to write. Douglass (2007) surmised that knowing how to write would be useful, â€Å"as I might have occasion to write my own pass†(Library of Liberty,p.94). By this time, Douglass was assigned to Hugh Auld’s shipyard. He used that opportunity to study the letters that the ship’s carpenters wrote on pieces of timber. Douglass quickly became proficient in writing the letters he knew, and devised a plan that would increase his writing skills. He approached local boys at the shipyards and challenged them to writing contests. Douglass would write out the letters he had learned, and defied them to outdo him. This tactic gave Frederick the opportunity to learn new letters which he practiced over and over. Any writing surface he encountered, i.e., fence, wall, or pavement, he used to practice. His master’s son, Tommy was in grade school at this time and had several books at home. Whenever Douglass was left alone to care for the house, he wrote the words in Tommy’s book until he was able copy them exactly. Through these tedious tasks, Douglass learned to write. About three years after moving to Baltimore, Captain Anthony died. Anthony’s youngest son, Richard, preceded him in death. In order to divide the estate equally between the two remaining children, Andrew and Lucretia, Douglass was sent back to Talbot county as property to be evaluated. Frederick’s departure from the Auld household was a sad occasion. Douglass (2007) recalled, â€Å"We all wept bitterly, for we were parting, and it might be we were parting forever† (Library of Liberty, p.97). At the valuation (2002), slaves young and old were ranked along with the pigs, horses, and cattle (Book Rags, p. 80). The slaves were forced to anxiously wait to see where they were headed. Frederick’s worst fear was to be placed in the possession of Master Andrew, a man known to be heartless and cruel. Douglass was especially troubled by this since he had experienced a certain degree of kindness in his life. Fortunately, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, who promptly sent him back to Baltimore to live with Hugh and Sophia Auld. Shortly after his return to Baltimore, both Lucretia and Master Andrew died. Their deaths left all the slaves in the hands of strangers. Perhaps the cruelest aspect of slavery was how Frederick’s grandmother was treated. After years of faithful service to her master and his children (2002), after caring for him from infancy to death, and after populating his plantation with her children and grandchildren, she was deemed too old to be of value and sent out to a little hut to die alone (Book Rags, p. 82). Two years after the death of Lucretia, Thomas Auld had a disagreement with his brother Hugh, and demanded Frederick’s return. Unlike the first time he was forced to leave Baltimore, Frederick was not sad about leaving Hugh and Sophia. According to Douglass (2007), â€Å"The influence of brandy and bad company on him, and of slavery and social isolation on her had wrought disastrously upon the characters of both†(Library of Liberty, p. 100). When Douglass returned to live with Thomas Auld, his began to experience slave life as a field hand. For perhaps the first time in his life, Douglass began to experience prolonged bouts of hunger. He and the rest of the slaves had to resort to begging and even stealing in order to obtain food. Douglass and Captain Auld did not get along; Auld considered Douglass spoiled from city life. Douglass received several beatings as a result of his attitude and for purposely letting the master’s horse run away. Despite several beatings, Douglass refused to be broken. As a direct result, Captain Auld lent Frederick to Edward Covey for a year. Covey was a farm renter with a reputation for being a â€Å"nigger breaker†(Library of Liberty, p. 101). Douglass was thankful for the move, believing he would at least have enough to eat. During Frederick’s first six months with Covey, he was beaten for a myriad of mistakes. Some of the mistakes were real, while others were due to Covey’s imagination. Frederick (2007) experienced his darkest days as a slave, stating: I was broken in body, soul, and spirit. My natural elasticity was crushed, my languished, the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died†¦(Library of Liberty, p. 105). A flicker of hope kept him going—the ships on the Chesapeake Bay. Frederick admired the vessels with their white sails and swift mobility. Douglass (2007) contrasted his condition of bondage to the freedom of the seas (Library of Liberty, p. 105). Frederick gained an overwhelming desire to escape from slavery or die trying. A turning point in Douglass’s life occurred after an incident with Covey. Frederick was severely beaten by Covey for being too exhausted to continue to work. Douglass fled to Thomas Auld’s home for protection but was ordered to return. Upon his return, Douglass was beaten again. After conferring with another slave, Frederick was given a root to carry for protection. The next day Douglass received kind words from Covey instead of a beating. The next encounter between Douglass and Covey resulted in a fight that lasted nearly two hours. Afterwards, Covey did not lay a hand on Douglass again. Frederick (2002) recalled, â€Å"My long-crushed spirit rose, cowardice departed, bold defiance took its place†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Book Rags, p. 110). When Douglass’s time with Covey ended, Frederick’s life became similar to a nomad’s. Douglass spent time on another farm, but was arrested for conspiring with other slaves to escape. After his release from jail, Douglass returned to Baltimore and Hugh Auld. Auld assigned Douglass to a shipyard so that he could learn to caulk. There were white men at the shipyard that refused to work with Frederick and a fight ensued. Douglass was assigned to another shipyard where he finally learned to caulk, and received top wages for his work. Since he was still a slave, Douglass was forced to give Hugh Auld all of his money. This injustice reinforced Douglass’s desire to escape, and he put a plan together to do just that. After years of hardship, beatings, jail, and other emotional atrocities, Frederick Douglass was ready to escape slavery. Douglass (2007) stated, â€Å"On Monday, the third day of September, 1838, in accordance with my resolution, I bade farewell to the city of Baltimore, and to that slavery which had been my abhorrence since childhood (Library of Liberty, p.110). Loosely dressed as a sailor, Frederick boarded a train to New York. Using his knowledge of ships, the vernacular of sailors, Douglass deceived the conductor into believing he was a seaman. Douglass’s perilous journey to freedom ended twenty-four hours later in New York City. Douglass found freedom and prosperity as a free man. He eventually settled in New Bedford, MA, with his new wife Anna. Douglass discovered that colored people in the North were united in their efforts to help escaped slaves. Douglass’s (2002) interest in the abolitionist movement was fueled by reading The Liberator, a newspaper that stirred his soul to join the fight to end slavery (Book Rag, p.112). In August, 1841, Douglass attended an anti-slavery convention in Nantucket. With encouragement from a friend, Frederick speaks for the first time to a white audience about slavery. From that moment on, Frederick Douglass became perhaps the foremost figure in the abolitionist movement. References Douglas, F. (2002). Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://www.bookrags.com/notes/fred/PART5.html Douglas, F. (2007). The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: From 1817-1882. Retrieved from http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2007/138723 SparkNotes. (2002). SparkNote on Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Retrieved from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/narrative/ Thomas, S. (n.d.). Frederick Douglass, Abolitionist/Editor, A Biography of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Retrieved from http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/douglass/home.html